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Mother-of-pearl artifacts found in Turkey date to the early Bronze Age, from about 6,000 - 3,000 BC. The decorative use of mother-of-pearl in Egypt goes at least as far back as 4,200 BC. Mother-of-pearl ornaments have been found in the Egyptian pyramids (built roughly 4500 years BC). Two mother-of-pearl items from Sumerian tombs (Mesopotamia, ca. 2900 BC), one representing a "wild goat entangled in branches", the other a "lion struggling with a bull," can be seen at the Louvre. The MOP is probably from pearl oysters once abundant in the Red Sea. The same type of work is also seen in ancient artifacts from Italy, Greece and Cyprus. Archeological evidence suggests the Sumerians were more interested in the mother-of-pearl shells than in the occasional pearl found inside. Archeologists have discovered gilded mummies that date back to Egypt's Greco-Roman period -- when the Greeks and later the Romans controlled Egypt (332 BC - 400 AD) -- with mother-of-pearl eyes.	iridescent enchantment As one of the most readily available and easily accessible resources available to early man, mother-of-pearl was among the first materials used by ancient craftsmen for decorative and ritual purposes. minoan bull's head ca. 1500 bc with restored mother-of-pearl inlay photo: excavations at mycenae From the Minoan Little Palace at Knossos to North American burial mounds, ancient mother-of-pearl jewelry, tools and ceremonial items are found as frequently among affluent 'civilized' cultures (e.g., Minoan, Indus Valley, Aztec) as they are among less sophisticated hunter/gatherer cultures (e.g., Native American, South Pacific Islander). The pinctada shell, as well as other shells drove vast trade networks. Huge numbers of ocean-based artifacts have been found hundreds and even thousands of miles inland, evidence that mother-of-pearl and other shells were highly valued by many cultures around the world. zeus and the seduction of europa The great Zeus became enamored with Europa, daughter of King Agenor of Tyre and his queen, Telephassa. Knowing his appearance would both dazzle and terrify the lovely young maiden, Zeus cloaked himself as a white bull with horns of mother-of-pearl and a silver moon emblazoned upon his forelock. While Europa was playing by the water's edge one day, she saw a majestic bull grazing amid her father's herd. When she approached the animal, it knelt down before her, allowing her to climb upon its back at which point the bull sprang to its feet, riding the waves across the sea to Crete. Once there, Zeus made the beautiful Europa his mistress, informing her that all the land she could see from the island now belonged to her. This land became known as the continent of Europe.
In the Muslim world, the art form of working in mother-of-pearl came about, in large part, because the Koran discourages the making of realistic images of people and animals. Therefore, abstract and semi-abstract patterns utilizing inlay became the most utilized form of artistic expression. The city of Edirne sits close to the borders of Greece and Bulgaria. For some years it was the Ottoman capital and in the 1800's one of the seven largest cities of Europe. The use of mother-of-pearl objects among the Turks of Central Asia is mentioned by Marco Polo (1254-1324) and is noted in the memoirs of several Byzantine ambassadors. Kazan Tatars made calligraphic inscriptions in mother-of-pearl. The Mosque of Hadim Ali Pasha in Istanbul, built in 1497, was *once known as the Sedef�iler Camisi, "Mosque of the Mother-of-Pearl Workers."* Describing the funeral ceremony of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, a court chronicler wrote that the sarcophagus was made of pure mother-of-pearl. The throne of Ahmed III (1637-1736), decorated in mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell and precious gems, can be seen in Istanbul today.	ottoman inlay In more recent times, among the most prolific users of mother-of-pearl were the Ottoman Turks, masters in the art of mother-of-pearl inlay -- as evidenced by the plethora of Koran cases, writing desks, chests, window and door shutters as well as pulpits, lecterns and various architectural pieces. intricate mother of pearl and wood inlay; topkapi palace, istanbul Among architectural examples are the doors of Zagnos Pasha Mosque in Balikesir (Turkey's province bordering both the Marmara Sea and Aegean), built in 1461 by the Grand Vizier of Mehmet the Conqueror (1432-1481). The intricate pattern of inlay work on the huge doors of the Mosque of Beyazid II, built by Sultan Bayezit II (1447-1512), son of Mehmet the Conqueror, in Edirne is also noteworthy. Each Ottoman sultan had his own mother-of-pearl workers within the palace grounds to work on favored projects -- for instance, workshops in the fifteenth century Topkapi Palace in Istanbul taught the art of working in mother-of-pearl to young apprentices and journeymen. Outside the palace in Istanbul there existed a "Mother-of-Pearl Workers' Market" in the district nowadays known as Tavuk Pazari that sold nothing but mother-of-pearl decorated items. Other areas under Ottoman control also made extensive use of mother-of-pearl. mosaic material, pinctada maxima In particular, Egypt was known for its elaborate mosaics consisting of mother-of-pearl of all colors, various marbles, and porphyry cut into myriads of small precise pieces. When all the pieces were assembled, they were put together with geometrical precision, resulting in uniquely beautiful and distinctly Arab designs. A nineteenth century French traveler to Egypt wrote, "the mosaics of mother-of-pearl shine on the walls of the mosque as if they were embroidered with silver."
Many of the mother-of-pearl artifacts manufactured in Mughul India were designed specifically for the Turkish market. In particular, Gujarat mother-of-pearl artisans were renowned for their small decorative storage chests. The vast and rich Mughal empire has been called "perhaps the greatest empire in the world, exhibiting a degree of centralized control rarely matched before." It's administrative genius was matched by its level of artistic achievement. *Baburnama* is the earliest known autobiography in Islamic literature. It chronicles the life of Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, the first Mughal (Mongol) emperor of India. Buried in the Taj Mahal are Shah Jahan and his principal wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who predeceased him by 35 years. (The name "Taj Mahal" is a corruption of "Mumtaz Mahal.") The romantic story that Shah Jahan built the Taj as a memorial to his beloved wife is a widely believed myth -- but untrue. While he was fond of his wife, he planned and built the Taj for himself.	mughal mother-of-pearl With close ties to the Ottomans, and a plentiful supply of pearl oysters from the Indian Ocean, it's no surprise that Mughul India also developed a rich tradition in the working of mother-of-pearl. ewer, ca. 1580-1620; gujarat photo: peabody essex museum In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, small but sumptuous pieces of furniture and decorative objects richly ornamented with mother-of-pearl were produced in Ahmedabad, Cambay, and Surat in northern Gujarat. Gujarati furniture with mother-of-pearl inlay is recorded in the Baburnama (early 16th century). Later on, the technique of setting mother-of-pearl in a black lac ground was employed on wooden tomb-covers of the early seventeenth century in Ahmedabad and Cambay, where a good proportion of this work also catered to the Turkish market. the taj mahal One of the world's most beautiful buildings, the Taj Mahal is a veritable museum of precious and semi-precious stones -- including mother-of-pearl.. Caravans traveled to all corners of the empire and beyond in search of precious materials. From Chinese Turkestan in Central Asia came nephrite jade and crystal; from Tibet, turquoise; from upper Burma, yellow amber; from Badakhshan in the high mountains of northeastern Afghanistan, lapis lazuli; from Egypt, chrysolite; from the Indian Ocean, rare shells, coral, and mother-of-pearl. Topazes, onyxes, garnets, sapphires, bloodstone -- forty three types of gems in all -- ranging from Himalayan quartz to Golconda diamonds - were ultimately to be used in embellishing the Taj Mahal.
A dish consisting of geometric-shaped pieces of mother of pearl found in China and belonging to the Tang Dynasty (618-906 BC) demonstrates the ancient Chinese skill in working with mother-of-pearl. Korean lacquerwork is often inlaid with mother-of-pearl. By the end of the Yi dynasty (1392-1910), the primary designs in mother-of-pearl were the ten symbols of longevity: crane, tortoise, deer, pine, bamboo, water, sun, clouds, mountains and bull'ocho, the magic fungus, which originated with Taoism in China and was later incorporated into Korean art. The best known of the "immortals" are the *Ba Xian* -- the Eight Immortals from Taoist mythology. The symbols for good fortune throughout China, they represent eight different conditions of life: youth, old age, poverty, wealth, the populace, nobility, the masculine and the feminine. The earliest descriptions of the Immortals date from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD).	buddhism brings furniture In China, although mother-of-pearl (as well as other shells) had been used as a form of currency for thousands of years, it was not seen in household objects until around the first century AD, a period that coincides with the introduction of Buddhism from India. intricate mop inlay on chinese cabinet Before this time, the Chinese used little in the way of furniture, normally sitting on the floor cross-legged or on stools. Buddhism introduced a more formal kind of sitting on chairs with back rests, and with chairs came other types of furniture. As the repertoire of Chinese furniture increased, it included lacquered chairs, beds, stools, tables, wardrobes, chests, and finely painted screens which were either intricately carved or inlaid with mother-of-pearl -- or both. ho hsien-ku of the 'eight immortals' In Taoist legend, Ho Hsien-Ku, the Immortal Maiden, is a Cantonese girl who has a vision in which she is instructed that if she eats powdered mother-of-pearl she will gradually become immortal. She lives in the mountains and became more and more ethereal, floating from peak to peak. At last, dispensing with earthly food, she attains her quest and from this time on, appears only to men of great virtue. Her symbol is the lotus, the flower of open-heartedness.
By 1900, Muscatine, Iowa had earned the right to call itself the "Pearl Button Capital of the World," out-producing most of the more established button-making centers in Europe. Until the twentieth century, divers in Tahiti, Moorea, the Tuamotu Archipelago and other islands in French Polynesia spent most of their time hunting for mother-of-pearl rather than pearls. The shells of Black-Lipped pearl oysters and other species of mollusks such as the Green Turban snail often contain thick mother-of-pearl, and Polynesians traditionally used these nacreous shells for buttons, decorative work, and above all, for fishing lures and hooks. Before European harvesting began in Tahiti, the lagoons had been so rich in pearl oysters that men could collect hundreds of kilos per day, standing in water only waist deep.	button, button...whose got the button? During the 17th century, buttons made from mother-of-pearl, from both snail shells and seashells, became quite fashionable, leading to a European-wide increase in the button industry. pearl buttons photo: great river Arriving in the United States in 1887,German button maker, John Frederick Boepple, set up shop in the Mississippi River town of Muscatine, Iowa. There he opened a mother-of-pearl button factory in 1891, supplied by an abundance of thick-shelled American pearl mussels from the Mississippi and other nearby rivers and streams. carved mother-of-pearl fishhook pendant photo: tokerou jim By the beginning of the nineteenth century, demand for buttons was so great that the button-making industry was using nearly 300,000 pounds of oyster shell annually. But by about 1850, supplies in Tahiti, where some of the best mother-of pearl had been harvested in the last hundred years, were largely depleted due to the predations of both local and foreign ships who systematically raked the oyster beds year after year with an inevitable result.
Within three years of the discovery of pearl oysters in Roebuck Bay in 1861, Australia was supplying 75% of the world's supply of mother-of-pearl; by 1900 it was 80%. Like the ancient Sumerians as well as the Polynesians, native Australians (aborigines) historically prized mother-of-pearl over pearls. Mostly found around the coasts of Australia, Indonesia, New Guinea, Burma, the Philippines and Polynesia, the shell of the pinctada maxima , also called gold-lipped or silver-lipped oyster (because of the gold or silver color of the valves), can achieve 12 inches in diameter and weigh up to 11 pounds. Luggers typically carried one or two divers and their equipment, including helmets and heavy canvas or rubber suits needed for the cold, deep waters.	boom in broome With supplies in Tahiti running out and demand continuing to rise, new stores of mother-of-pearl had to be found. The discovery of abundant beds of the world's largest pearl oyster, the dinner plate-sized pinctada maxima in 1861, on the coast of western Australia near the tiny town of Broome on the Indian Ocean, precipitated a rush of would-be pearl divers -- much like the discovery of gold in the Klondike would later attract thousands of miners. pearling lugger photo: casey tours Quickly becoming known as the 'Pearl Capital of the World,' Broome rapidly morphed into one of the most unique and multi-cultural towns in all of Australia. Broome's promise of potential wealth attracted English, Japanese, Malaysians, Koepangers (from neighboring islands such as Timor), Malays, 'Manilamen' (a term often referring to Muslims of any nationality), Filipinos, Aboriginals, Americans, Chileans, Peruvians, Finns, Germans, and more -- all in pursuit of adventure and fortune as they searched for "shells the size of dinner plates and pearls worth a king's ransom." Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, sailing ships known as luggers traveled the waters off the coast of northwestern Australia in search of mother-of-pearl. Many of the men who worked on them would never to see their homelands again, given the many hazards, on sea and land that awaited them. Lugging was a risky business -- so much so that luggers were not insurable. One in ten divers died every year from 'the bends,' drowning and shark attacks. During one cyclone alone in March 1935, twenty luggers were destroyed and 141 men drowned.
The predominate colors and stones used in' traditional Zuni inlay' are turquoise, red coral, black jet and white mother-of-pearl. (Red -- Mediterraean -- coral was only introduced by the Spaniards after the Conquest.) Although many Native American tribes create and use fetishes, the most renowned fetish carvers are the Zuni, who *call themselves Asiwi* ("Ah-she-wee"). Fetishes are used for many purposes: to enable hunters to catch game, to make game more plentiful and also for curing ceremonies. Fetishes may protect individuals as well as the community**.	fetish find Sometime in the late 1800's or early 1900's, mother-of-pearl was added (along with cowry and green trocus shell) to the time-honored carving materials of Southwest Native Americans who traditionally used antler, bone, clay, red abalone, conus, spondylus (spiny oyster shell), and glycemeris shell. mother of pearl/gold lip medicine bear fetish photo: indian summer Mother-of-pearl was also a welcome addition to the repertoire of materials most often reserved for the creation of fetishes, sacred objects possessing great magical powers. As Mark Bahti says in his book, "Spirit in the Stone": "Artisans favored sea shells over freshwater shells for jewelry and religious purposes, most probably because of the association with the seemingly limitless waters of the ocean, reverentially esteemed and recognized by these desert dwellers as the source of the summer rains."